Writing skills - persuade, argue and advise

When writing to argue, persuade and advise, you are putting forward your view to the reader. Each purpose has different techniques.

A written argument is not the same as a verbal argument with a friend – which is often full of passion and you say strongly what you think. When you write to argue, your audience are strangers not friends. This means a more formal, fair and well-structured approach is likely to work best.

A written argument can work well when it is presented as a debate between opposing views. This can help make you seem much more fair-minded and that you have weighed up the pros and the cons before coming to your own view.

Example

Imagine the following article has appeared in your local paper:

Task

You might be asked to write to your local paper, arguing that the park should be preserved.

It is clear in the article that there is a debate and that other strongly held views exist. Therefore, it wouldn’t be convincing to simply state your own single view. It wouldn't even be enough just to list all the good things about the park. That would be ignoring other views – as if they didn’t matter.

An effective argument presents different viewpoints. For instance, the park might well be a wonderful natural habitat; but it also likely costs a lot to maintain; and it might be a good place to walk; but the town is clogged with cars. An argument is a debate and requires you to present the main ideas for and against.

It helps to link these differing viewpoints logically. This is done using connectives, for example, 'however others might disagree…' or 'although different views exist, for example…'.

Connectives act like signposts to guide your reader through the debate that you present. They create a fluent and logical structure that helps to suggest fairness and balance. If done well, they can also make the contrasts clear between the two sides in favour of your view.

Structuring an argument

When you are writing an argument, it is important to start with a plan which starts with a list of views both for and against the topic.

• Start with a clear opening that explains what the argument is about and where you stand on it.
• Write a series of structured 'body paragraphs' that present the debate, that is, the differing sides of the argument – but in each case use this to show how your viewpoint is the best one to take. For example, 'It is true that the town is crowded with parked cars and that many of these are from workers at local businesses. This means that a new car park would be welcome to relieve the congestion and pollution in town; however, to take away a green space that is the home of the town’s war memorial and such a popular walking spot for the young and elderly is surely the wrong way to go about it.'
• A strong conclusion that very briefly summarises the strongest point from each side of the argument, before restating the writer’s view as the best compromise to follow.

You can see from the example how the use of a connective can help the argument to flow smoothly and seemingly logically: '…in town; however, to take away a green space…'. There are many connectives and they often work well after a semicolon as this creates a useful 'pause and emphasis effect'.

Useful connectives:

• but
• so
• and so
• however
• although
• instead of
• alternatively
• in contrast
• whereas
• on the other hand
• unlike
• otherwise
• likewise
• similarly
• equally
• as with
• in the same way
• like

When writing an argument, there are certain techniques that you may wish to include as well so that you can back up each side of the argument.

It is best to make your view clear at the outset but to include some aspects of the other side to show that they understand the opposing view.

Use the list below to guide you and help you to improve your argument by adding these techniques:

• Anecdote - a brief account or story. An anecdote is used to back up your viewpoint. For example, to keep the park, you might write, 'Many parents have said just how important the green area is for their young children as a safe place for play and exercise'. Anecdotes can be made up, of course – but they do need to appear realistic and reasonable.
• Clusters of three/lists of three - this is usually three phrases or describing words used to emphasise a point, for example, 'it’s great, it’s brilliant, it’s amazing!'. Usually the list gets stronger as it builds up. A list of three can create a very impressive effect of emphasis but be careful if you are writing a balanced argument as it is a way to present one side of a point of view.
• Contrasts - a contrast presents two opposing views, but in a way that subtly shows one as a stronger view, for example, 'While it is true that the town is clogged with workers’ cars during the daytime and the park is often empty at that time, the opposite is true in the afternoons and especially summer evenings…'. This is essential in an argument as the writer’s job is to present each side of the case fairly.
• Emotive words - these are words that are deliberately designed to try to make the reader have strong feelings. These can be positive or negative. Human beings will react to some words very positively. Words like ‘love’, ‘happiness’, ‘wealth’ and ‘good health’ tend to make us feel positive. Other words, such as ‘death’, ‘illness’, ‘poverty’ and ‘tears’ make us negative. You need to be subtle with your use of emotional language in an argument especially if you are writing a balanced argument.
• Imagery - a mental picture or feeling in the mind’s eye. Imagery can help a reader engage with a text by making them feel almost as if they were 'there', seeing, hearing or feeling the things the writer saw, heard and felt.
• Personal Pronouns - these are words like 'I', 'me' and 'you'. By using a personal pronoun such as ‘you’, you are addressing the reader directly. This can cause the reader to engage very closely with the text and help to keep them engaged in your argument.
• Repetition - this is where a single word or phrase is repeated at least twice. Repetition works in a similar way to a list of three. By repeating a word or phrase, you draw attention to it and emphasise its importance.
• Rhetorical question - this is a question stated in a way that presents a point of view, so is not truly asking for a response. When a reader is asked a question, it engages them in the topic of the writing.
• Statistics (and facts) - statistics are numbers or facts that are presented to seem to be fair and convincing information. You should use these as a tool to convince your reader so take care if you are trying to create a sense of balance. The reader will feel that they cannot argue with statistics and facts and that the statistics will prove what you are saying.
• Quotations - quotations are used when a writer brings in some information from another person or from another article and quotes their actual words. By using quotations from other interested – and often expert - parties, you can back up what is being said or promoted. It can help make the argument seem well researched and thought out.

When persuading people, you don't need to show both sides, you can simply present your own views. For instance, imagine you had to persuade people to buy a certain brand of toothpaste.

You could write about the great taste, or how clean your teeth feel or how white they have become. You could select any aspect of the product to write about as long as you focus on getting them to buy it.

So the first thing is:

• Be confident - if you have been asked to write about how great chips are, be sure you have first convinced yourself how good they are. They might even be a healthy option, because lots of doctors are bound to like them and chips wouldn't be so popular if they weren't really great. Would they? You can be pushy here if you are trying to promote something.
• Be positive - it's always better to tell how good your idea is rather than how bad other people's ideas are. Write about the things that show your ideas in the best light. For instance, aren't chips just great for a quick snack? Why were chips voted the most popular option in your school at lunchtime?

• Be convincing - if you don't seem too sure, or if you can't make your ideas stand out, then you aren't really persuading as much as you could. Remember to be definite and clearly state your point.

Whenever you are planning to write persuasively, always think carefully about some of the techniques that you could use to persuade your readers. Below is a checklist of tools, they are similar to the 'writing to argue techniques' but focus on persuasion.

You don’t need to use all of them but you should definitely use a range.

• Anecdotes - these are short accounts of a real event told in the form of a very brief story. Their effect is often to create an emotional or sympathetic response. An anecdote is usually used to help support a persuasive argument that the writer is putting forward. For example, if a writer wants to persuade people to stop smoking, they may use an anecdote about a close relative who died of lung cancer. For English work at school and in exams, you will need to make up an anecdote to suit the exam question, but it must always be realistic.
• Catchy phrases or slogans - these will be words that are designed to stick in the readers mind. This will work in the same way as songs or radio adverts, by reminding the reader of the product and by making it easier to remember key information. You can also repeat these through your writing.
• Chatty style - this is language closer in style to that used with friends in conversation. Although writing is always more formal than speech, some uses of a more chatty style can be effective in some genres and for some audiences. It works to create a friendly persuasive effect.
• List of three/a tripartite list - this is a triple repetition that adds emphasis, for example, 'it’s great; it’s brilliant; it’s amazing!'. A greater effect can be achieved if the words are made more emotional or stronger as the list builds up. No one knows quite why three is a magic number for lists like this, but it is – and is stronger than a list of two or four items, for example. A list of three can help emphasise the benefits of a product or strengthen a point of view impressively but, as always, needs to be used only when it suits to the form of the text (ie its genre) and the needs of the target audience.
• Contrasts - this is a comparison of two things intended to highlight one of them because of the contrast. By showing the different viewpoints, the writer is showing that they are fair and this makes them a more reliable source of information. The reader will see the writer as balanced, honest and trustworthy.
• Criticising the opposite opinion/the opposition - this is where a writer will mention all of the alternative arguments or the alternative products and explain their downfalls. By doing this, the writer is showing that they are aware of what the reader could be thinking and is making sure that they know all of the negative things about the opposition. It also makes the writer seem as if they are knowledgeable and so what they are saying is important.
• Emotive words - these are words that are deliberately designed to make a reader have strong feelings. These can be positive or negative. Human beings will react to some words very positively. Words like love, happiness, wealth and good health make us feel good. Other words, such as death, illness, poverty and tears can make us feel very negative. Writers are very clever with the words that they use in order to persuade us of their argument.
• Emotive pictures - these do not have to be actual pictures. They may be a description of a picture. A detailed description of a picture can put an image in the mind of the reader. An emotive picture will either be one that is really happy or really unhappy. It will depend on what the writer is trying to achieve. Trying to get the reader to picture a sad scene or happy scene is the writer’s way of making the reader feel good about being on their side or bad if they are not.
• Exaggeration (also known as hyperbole) - this is where a writer will be really over the top, in order to make it seem as if an issue is massive, for example, 'how will you ever live with yourself if you ignore this?'. The writer does this intentionally to make the reader consider the enormity of the issue. The exaggeration will usually be a common type of phrase so that the reader is used to hearing it, such as 'millions of us need this'. By using a common phrase, the reader doesn’t question it and will believe the writer.
• Forceful phrases (also known as imperatives) - these use words like ‘think about the plight of…’ or ‘forget your previous ideas about…’. These are used to push a reader into thinking that the need to agree is urgent. It suggests that this is something that the reader must act upon.
• Humour - this is where the writer tries to make funny points, maybe even ridiculous ones to prove that they are right. Humour works in two ways. The reader will usually appreciate humour, so it will make them more likely to be on the side of the writer. Also, the reader will remember what made them laugh, so it will make the message in the text even more memorable.

• Imagery - this covers all of the descriptive writing techniques – such as metaphors and similes. These will usually be used in emotive pictures or anecdotes. When a writer uses imagery, they will be trying to get the reader to picture something specific. When you analyse this, think about what the writer is trying to show the reader and how this helps their argument.

• Opinion as fact - this is where the writer will state that their opinion is fact, when it is actually an opinion. For example, 'It is a fact that I cannot stand winter!'. By stating that opinion is fact, it can be quite confusing for a reader. The reader may feel automatically that it is a fact and could be convinced by it.
• Personal pronouns - this is where the writer will use words such as, ’I’ or ’we’ or ’you’ to talk directly to the reader. By using the word, ’you’ and addressing the reader, the writer can appeal directly to every individual reading the text. By using the word ’we’ it will make it seem as if the writer is on the exact side of the reader, as if ’we’ are all in this together.
• Repetition - this is where a single word or phrase is repeated over and over again in order to emphasise it. Repetition works in a similar way to a list of three. By continually repeating the same idea or phrase, it draws attention to that particular phrase and emphasises its importance. For that reason, it is important to analyse the actual word or point being made and why it needs to be emphasised.
• Rhetorical questions - these are questions that appear in writing that isn’t dialogue. As there is nobody to answer the question, they are usually designed to talk to the reader. It allows the reader a moment to pause and think about the question. For that reason, rhetorical questions are effective in hooking a reader’s interest and making them think about their own response to the question in hand.
• Shock tactics - this is where the writer will try to use shocking imagery or statements in order surprise or horrify the reader. This is effective because it will shock the reader into action. If the reader is surprised or horrified by something, they will remember it and it is likely to cause an emotional response that will make them react.
• Statistics (and facts) - statistics are numbers or facts that are used to provide convincing information. A writer will use these as a tool to convince the reader. The reader will feel that they cannot argue with facts and that statistics will prove what the writer is saying. They are used to convince a reader and to add factual weight to an argument.
• Quotations and expert opinions - quotations are used when a writer brings in some information from another person, sometimes an expert, or from another article and ’quotes’ what is said by someone else. By using quotations from other people to back up what is being said or promoted, it will make the argument seem much more appealing. If other people, particularly experts, believe in something, this is used to convince the reader that it must be right.

Once you can argue and persuade, it should be easy to advise. The trick is not to be too strident – it is no good pushing your ideas at your readers, or trying to impress them too obviously. Instead, you should come across as friendly, as someone who just wants to help – there simply to give advice.

Task

Imagine you're writing to advise a school child who is moving house and has to change schools. We know that it won't be easy - they'll have to make new friends and cope with all sorts of changes. So you’ll need to be sympathetic and give some ideas that you think will be helpful.

The first thing might be to plan each main idea and use it in a separate paragraph. This will make the advice easier to follow. Next, think hard about how you want to present these ideas, ie think what will be the most clear and effective sequence or order. Such as:

If you're not sure what to do on the first day, ask someone nearby.

You can add information to this - perhaps explaining why and giving an example of what to do, so now your paragraph looks like this:

If you're not sure what to do on the first day, ask someone. Most people will be glad to help and it's the quickest way to make friends. You can ask a teacher, but it might be better to ask one of the other pupils. Choose a friendly face if you can, and try hard not to be shy - it might be their first day too.

It is not just the information that makes this a good piece of advice, it's also the style in which it is given. It includes words called 'modals' such as 'might' and 'can'. These work to make ideas seem more politely given - they are not 'in the reader’s face' and pushing them to agree. They just guide the reader in a friendly manner. And they are very simple to use, so make sure you include modal words like ‘should’, ‘can’, ‘could’, ‘might’, ‘ought to’ and ‘may’ - each one turns an idea into a piece of friendly advice.

Consider the conventions of writing to advise in this guide and try to include some of these in your own writing.

Can you identify the techniques being used in these short persuasive pieces?

You simply cannot argue with the fact that when it comes to making a crisp sandwich, Cheese and Onion flavour crisps are King. Step back, Salt and Vinegar! Be gone, Barbecue! Please leave, Prawn Cocktail! There’s only one kind of crunch I want to savour between the fluffy white bread and delicious melty butter of my favourite sandwich, and Cheese and Onion is it. It is the gold standard of flavour; the proud monarch of the snack aisle. Some might point out the merits of other, less noble crisps, but they are refusing to accept the truth; only Cheese and Onion can deliver the delectable savoury taste sensation sandwich lovers deserve."