GCSE History podcasts - The British Empire

Announcer: BBC Sounds, music, radio, podcasts.

Katie: I'm history podcaster Katie Charlwood.

Datshiane: And I'm history graduate and TV and radio presenter Datshiane Navanayagam.

Katie: And this is Bitesize History.

Datshiane: This is the first episode in an eight-part series on the British Empire.

Katie: We'll be sharing revision hints and tips on how to remember those key facts, and there'll be exam tips and a quick test of your knowledge.

Datshiane: And we'll be hearing from our Bitesize time-travelling reporter, who we'll send back in time to report from some key moments in history.

Katie: And remember that it might help you if you have something to make notes on, and do feel free to press stop and rewind whenever you need to.

Datshiane: In this episode, we'll look at the formation of Britain over the last thousand years, the European exploration in the 5th century and the early development of the British Empire under Elizabeth the First.

Datshiane: Let's start our story all the way back in the 5th century, way before the British Empire, but shortly after the Roman Empire had collapsed. So, the Anglo-Saxons had migrated to England around 400AD and by 900AD they had established four powerful kingdoms, but these kingdoms weren't united, in fact they each had different rulers who were often in conflict with one another.

Katie: Hang on, wouldn't that make the kingdoms more vulnerable to attack and invasion?

Datshiane: Exactly. So, from the eighth to the 11th centuries - well - along came the Vikings from Scandinavia, and they began raiding England in 793AD. It was King Alfred the Great who defeated the Vikings by uniting Anglo-Saxon Christians, but that wasn't the only thing he did; he also accepted the creation of a Viking kingdom, which was called Danelaw.

Katie: Great! So, that's all sorted with the Vikings then?

Datshiane: Well, no, not exactly. The 11th century saw more Viking invasions, which restored Viking rule over England through King Canute who ruled over a North Sea Empire.

Katie: After Canute's death, there was a struggle for control, leading to a return of Anglo-Saxon rule under Edward the Confessor. So, lots of changes of rule there between the Anglo-Saxons and Vikings.

Datshiane: Okay, but fast forward to 1066, and now King Edward dies without an heir to the throne.

Katie: Oh, a succession crisis!

Datshiane: You bet! William, the Duke of Normandy, wins the Battle of Hastings, and he's now crowned King of England.

Katie: Okay, so that's lots of dates, names and invasions in early Britain, but the key thing to note for us is that Britain as a united kingdom was developed, and there was a huge migration of people to the British Isles.

Datshiane: That's right, so we have the Anglo-Saxons from Northern Germany, the Vikings from Scandinavia and the Normans from Northern France.

Katie: Speaking of France, let's turn our attention there, where throughout this period English Kings also held land, power, and influence.

Datshiane: In the late 12th century during the reign of King Henry the Second, England was part of a vast Angevin empire, you might want to pause and write this down, Angevin is spelt A-n-g-e-v-i-n. This empire included England, Wales, West of France as well as the East of Ireland, and get this, at this time the language of England was French.

Katie: Fast forward again, and the Angevin empire began to unravel and ended in the 13th century. This was due to a series of conflicts, betrayal and political challenges which led to England no longer controlling areas of France, and this was a huge setback for English imperial ambitions.

Datshiane: In fact, this contributed to ongoing tensions between England and France, which would eventually lead to the Hundred Years War in which England was eventually defeated. Check out the Bitesize website for more on this.

Katie: This loss of wealth and resources from the French territories encouraged England to look for new sources of income and influence. As European trade routes expanded in the 15th and 16th century, the English began to see the potential for overseas exploration and trade as a way to compensate. This contributed indirectly to the exploration of America and the foundation of the early British Empire.

Datshiane: Right, and in the next section we'll look at the development of empire under Elizabeth the First. But first, lots of dates, invasions, and kings of England there, so how about a quick test to see how much of it you've remembered? Three questions about that section, five seconds to write your answers down, here it goes.

Katie: Who were the early invaders and rulers of England after the Roman Empire had collapsed?

Datshiane: The Anglo-Saxons in the 5th century, the Vikings in the 8th to 11th centuries, and if you want an extra point you can also include the Anglo-Saxons again in the 11th century, the Normans in 1066 and the Angevins in the 12th and 13th centuries.

Katie: Great, and what is Danelaw?

Datshiane: Well, that was the name for an area of England that was under the control of the Danish Viking Empire.

Katie: And why did the end of the Angevin Empire lead to England beginning to explore other lands?

Datshiane: Well, after England lost control of many French regions they explored other overseas territories to make up for that loss of wealth.

Katie: During the 16th century under the rule of Elizabeth the First, British sailors were encouraged and funded to travel to lands where Britain had never been before.

Datshiane: Sir John Hawkins and Sir Francis Drake were privateers and they were the first English traders in enslaved people. Queen Elizabeth the First's enemy was Spain, and Hawkins and Drake sailed to raid Spanish ships and colonies in the Americas on her behalf.

Katie: In 1585, Queen Elizabeth the First gave Walter Raleigh permission to set up a colony on Roanoke Island, now part of modern-day USA.

Datshiane: However, life wasn't always easy for migrants when they got there. The early years in the American colonies were marked by famine and disease.

Katie: In 1610, William Strachey, the secretary of the colony, wrote a detailed letter about the conditions in Jamestown: ‘A most dreadful winter, more than half of our company died, and it was so extreme as our men were driven to do things which the tongue relishes not to mention, and far worse were resolved upon.’

Datshiane: But the colony's fortunes changed with the cultivation of crops such as sugar, tobacco and cotton, that made Jamestown and Virginia economically profitable; and in fact the colony grew, but eventually the chosen way to meet this demand was to exploit the labour of enslaved Africans who continued to be transported from West Africa.

Katie: And in 1564, Hawkins seized 300 people from the coast of West Africa, close to modern day Sierra Leone and he sold the captives in Hispaniola.

Datshiane: Between 1564 and 1569, Hawkins was involved in four voyages transporting and selling around twelve hundred people into enslavement. We'll have more about the connection between the growth of the British Empire and slavery in a later episode.

Katie: Okay, so it is time to check in with Jordan our time-travelling reporter, with his report as Drake's Golden Hind returns to the Plymouth docks in September 1580.

Jordan: The air is filled with the salty tang of the sea mixed with the smell of tar. As sailors unload barrels of food, fresh water and trade goods I'm hoping to catch a glimpse of Francis Drake, who in England at this time is considered one of the world's most famous explorers. His ship, the Golden Hind, has just docked after three years at sea. The journey has taken his crew across the Atlantic, around treacherous waters of South America, and into the Pacific, completely unknown territories to Europeans, raiding Spanish ships, exploring and capturing immense wealth in gold and spices. Drake's successful circumnavigation of the globe, the first Englishman to do so, is sure to be remembered for generations to come, for supplying England with vast riches and opening more trade routes with other countries. But whilst he is being celebrated today for his exploration, I want to ask him about something less celebratory - his and his cousin John Hawkins' involvement in the cruel and inhumane slave trade. It's up to the historians of the future to analyse the full story and life of the vastly different impacts Hawkins had on different groups of people. This is Jordan, reporting for BBC Bitesize. Back to the studio.

Katie: Thanks, Jordan. Okay, so an exam question might ask what the significance of Francis Drake was.

Datshiane: Have a go at that, after the podcast, thinking about his role in the slave trade and his exploration, or listen to the Exam Skill series if you need some reminders on how to answer these kinds of questions.

Katie: As voyages continued from Britain, to and from what became known as the New World to exploit their resources?

Datshiane: Ooh can I just stop you there Katie, that term the New World, these places weren't new to the people who had lived in these parts of the world for centuries.

Katie: That is absolutely right, and that is a good point to remember.

Datshiane: In fact the exploration of land and trade led to the establishment of British colonies in the Americas. These colonies became increasingly profitable for Britain as the demand for these new crops such as tobacco was high.

Katie: A quick summary of the key facts from the second half of this episode anyone?

Datshiane: Well, the first explorer John Hawkins led an expedition to the West Indies by enslaving Africans, who were taken from West Africa.

Katie: His cousin Francis Drake sailed across the world on the Golden Hind, an expedition seen as the development of the British Empire.

Datshiane: People from Britain began to migrate to North America, and new British colonies and settlements started to grow there.

Katie: Jamestown in Virginia eventually became profitable due to the farming of key crops and enslaved labour from Africa. Now there's loads more revision hints and tips on the Bitesize website and more episodes in this series.

Datshiane: In the next episode we'll look at how the British took control of India in the 18th century. Thanks for listening.

Announcer: BBC Sounds, music, radio, podcasts.

Katie: I'm Katie Charlwood.

Datshiane: And I'm Datshiane Navanayagam.

Katie: And this is BBC Bitesize History.

Datshiane: This is the second episode in an eight-part series on the British Empire.

Katie: In this episode we look at how Britain took control of India through the East India Company.

Datshiane: We'll look at its origins and development and how its role shifted from trading to ruling, as well as the rebellions against its policies and eventual legacy.

Katie: It might help if you have something to make notes on and do feel free to press stop and rewind whenever you need to.

Datshiane: We'll also share revision hints and tips on how to remember those key facts, and we'll be sending our Bitesize travelling reporter back to a key moment in history.

Datshiane: So, the topic of British colonization in India, Katie, where do we start?

Katie: Well, British interests in India started with the East India Company, a British trading company who ended up ruling a nation.

Datshiane: Okay, so that is fascinating that it was a company, not an army, that can end up ruling a nation.

Katie: Absolutely, let's see how that happened.

Datshiane: So, the East India Company, or EIC, was established by a royal charter in 1600, which is like it gave permission from Queen Elizabeth the First, so their original goal was to trade in spices, silks and other goods from the East Indies, which is modern day Indonesia. However, they soon found there was a lot more money to be made in India from the abundance of wealth of India's resources of cotton, tea and spices, which they could exploit for huge profits. Now, over time, the EIC expanded its influence by establishing trading posts and ports in key locations.

Katie: Factories appeared at these trading stations making goods from the raw materials. Cotton was woven and sent to Britain in huge quantities to supply the demand for this new fabric. Opium, an addictive drug, was also grown and sold by the East India Company in China at a huge profit.

Datshiane: The East India Company continued to get bigger and bigger. It was built on exploitation, theft, and cultivating drugs, and as a result it developed power and influence in India. The East India Company changed from trading to a ruling company, and it did this in three ways. Katie, tell us how we can remember this.

Katie: Okay so I'm going to suggest the letters MPR, so grab that pen and write this down to help you remember. M is for military power: the East India Company developed a private army, one of the largest armies in the world, to protect its interests; P is for political influence: the company began to involve itself in local politics forming alliances with powerful people and local princes, and taking sides in regional conflicts; and R is revenue collection: the EIC started collecting taxes and administering justice in the areas under its control, effectively becoming a governing body.

Datshiane: Katie, I think we need to talk about Robert Clive. Now, he was one of the key British officers who was important in establishing British control in India in the 1700s.

Katie: In 1757, he led British forces against the Nawab of Bengal, Siraj-ud-Daulah. Nawab means prince. The Nawab of Bengal had seized the British settlement at Calcutta, and was more sympathetic to the French Trading Company. Clive, with a smaller but well-disciplined army, bribed the Indian generals to betray the Nawab during the Battle of Plassey.

Datshiane: This was a decisive victory for the East India Company, as it allowed it to gain control over Bengal and its vast resources, and they used this as a base to extend their influence over other parts of this region of India. From then on, the East India Company began to control the government, economy, and education system of India.

Katie: The Battle of Plassey was significant in the expansion of the East India Company rule and British colonialism, so it might be useful to grab your note-taking devices, and take some notes as to how this was a turning point in Indian rule.

Datshiane: Now, Clive was made Governor and Commander-in-Chief of Bengal, which was then one of the richest parts of India, and he oversaw the forcible theft of goods and crops from the region, and he made a personal fortune. His greed and mismanagement increased the devastation of the Bengal famine of 1770, in which about ten million people died. Clive was even criticised in Parliament in 1772 for corruption, yet despite all this the EIC continued to make massive profits, shipping its wealth back to Britain.

Datshiane: So, there's another key individual in the history of the East India Company, and that person is Warren Hastings, who was the first Governor General of India between 1773 and 1785. Hastings brought in administrative reforms, established a system of revenue collection, and promoted the study of Indian culture and languages. And he also created a system of dual governance where local Indian rulers maintained some power, but the real control lay with British officials. His policies helped solidify British control, and contributed to the continued economic exploitation of Indian resources.

Katie: Hastings was also keen to stop corruption within the East India Company itself and introduced the Regulating Act of 1773; this placed the company under supervision of the British Government for the first time. So, this act set the stage for the transformation of India into a colony directly ruled by Britain after the East India Company's dominance began to wane in the 19th century, as a result of events which we'll get to in a moment.

Datshiane: But we're not there yet, because by the mid-1800s the EIC controlled large parts of India, either directly or through puppet rulers.

Katie: So, these were rulers that were put in place and controlled by the East India Company.

Datshiane: Their expansion was created by both military campaigns and diplomatic alliances, and the company used various methods to gain control.

Katie: Treaties and alliances - they would make deals with Indian rulers offering them protection in exchange for influence over their territories.

Datshiane: Subsidiary alliances - Indian rulers had to accept British troops stationed in their states, and couldn't make treaties with anyone else without EIC permission.

Katie: Doctrine of Lapse - if an Indian ruler died without a male heir the EIC could take over their territory. Check out the Bitesize website for more on these alliances.

Datshiane: Thanks to the East India Company, much of India was controlled by the British by the 1850s. However, in 1857 a major rebellion in Bengal had profound consequences. It's time for us to check in with Jordan, our time-travelling Bitesize reporter who's there.

Jordan: Hi, Jordan here in 1857 Bengal, where tensions are at an all-time high, and there are rumours that the rebellion has spread across the country led by the Sepoys, the Indian soldiers who serve under British command. It started with a rumour - a new rifle cartridge coated in grease made from pigs and cows has sparked outrage among Hindu and Muslim soldiers. The idea of biting into it is seen as deeply offensive to their religious beliefs. In March, a sepoy, named Mangal Pandey, attacked his British officer, and was executed, but the fires of rebellion were lit. Two months later, and it had spread like wildfire, the sepoys turning against their officers, capturing territories, and in some cases killing their British superiors. I heard one sepoy shout that no one wants to be ruled by those who disrespect their faith. And I have seen banners saying that large rewards and high rank would be given by the King of Delhi to anyone who joins the rebellion. Will this rebellion be short lived? The toll is heavy with thousands of British and countless Indians dead, not only from battle, but also from the famine that grips the land. This is Jordan, reporting for Bitesize History. Back to the studio.

Katie: Thanks for that Jordan. So that animal fat-coated rifle cartridge was deeply offensive, and it triggered the uprising.

Datshiane: And as always in history there were other interlinking causes. The deep-seated problems were fuelled by decades of widespread discontent with British rule, including economic exploitation, cultural insensitivity, and military grievances.

Katie: The rebellion which began in Meerut on the 9th of May 1857 quickly spread across Northern and Central India, it involved sepoys, Indian princes, and even peasants joining in. The sepoys killed British officers, freed imprisoned sepoys and set fire to army barracks.

Datshiane: Soon, the whole of northern India was engulfed in rebellion, and it became what is now known as the First War of Independence in India, with major battles in Delhi, Kanpur, and Lucknow.

Katie: After 18 months of fighting, Britain defeated the sepoys. It is estimated that several thousand British soldiers were killed during the rebellion, while the estimates for the Indian death toll are in the hundreds of thousands. Many British and Indian civilians were also killed in the violence, and many lives were also lost to a famine that occurred at the same time as the rebellion.

Datshiane: The rebellion was eventually suppressed by the British, but it led to significant changes in how India was governed. The British Government dissolved the EIC deciding that the company could no longer be trusted to rule India; then in August 1858 the Government of India Act was passed marking the beginning of the British Raj. A viceroy was put in charge of India on behalf of Queen Victoria, who was declared Empress of India in 1876.

Katie: So, an exam question might ask you to explain why the First War of Independence of 1857 was a turning point in the British Empire's control of India. Some exam boards might phrase it as the Sepoy Rebellion of 1857. Have a go yourselves and think about what information you need to address, the causes of the rebellion, the turning points and the outcome. Press pause and have a go, or listen on as we have a wee think about that in five, four, three, two, one.

Datshiane: So, for cause you might include the resentment of British rule, economic exploitation and the Doctrine of Lapse amongst others.

Katie: Okay and what were the turning points?

Datshiane: Well, here you might want to include the controversial gun cartridges, cultural offence and the killing of the British soldier and execution of sepoys which escalated the violence.

Katie: And finally, its outcome.

Datshiane: Well, this would include the end of the East India Company, and direct rule from the British Crown and Queen Victoria who was made Empress of India.

Katie: Alright Datshiane, quick final summary of the East India Company please.

Datshiane: Sure thing.

Katie: The East India Company or EIC was established as a trading company to trade from India and Southeast Asia to Europe.

Datshiane: The company built a private army and gained military and political control over large parts of India.

Katie: The Battle of Plassey in 1757 marked a turning point by increasing EIC control when Robert Clive defeated the Nawab of Bengal.

Datshiane: The company policies worsened the Bengal famine of 1770, causing the deaths of millions.

Katie: The Indian Rebellion of 1857, also known as the Sepoy Mutiny, was a large-scale revolt against the company.

Datshiane: And following the rebellion the British Government dissolved the East India Company and took direct control of India, leading to the establishment of the British Raj.

Katie: So, the threads in this episode that we'll continue to see weave the series together, are how economics…

Datshiane: …in this case to increase Britain's wealth…

Katie: …resulted in the movement of people and goods…

Datshiane: …initially by the East India Company…

Katie: - …and led to colonisation and exploitation.

Datshiane: There's loads more on this and other history topics on the Bitesize website, as well as in other episodes in this series.

Katie: In the next episode we'll be looking at the loss of the American colonies and the American Revolutionary Wars.

Datshiane: See ya.

Announcer: BBC Sounds, music, radio, podcasts.

Datshiane: I'm Datshiane Navanayagam.

Katie: And I'm Katie Charlwood, and this is Bitesize History.

Datshiane: This is the third episode in an eight-part series on the British Empire, and in this episode, we look at the loss of the British ruled American colonies in the late 1700s.

Katie: It might help if you have something to make notes on and do feel free to press stop and rewind whenever you need to.

Datshiane: OK, let's begin with those 13 American colonies. Katie, give us the who, what, where and when.

Katie: The 13 colonies were established by Britain along the eastern coast of North America during the 17th and early 18th centuries.

Datshiane: Nice. And let's throw in a why. Why did people leave Britain to go to these North American colonies?

Katie: Well, people left Britain because of high unemployment and low wages on farmland. They were struggling to survive and sometimes faced starvation because of failed harvests. Also, Britain had turned from a Catholic to a Protestant nation and many Catholics, Puritans and Quakers left Britain fearing religious persecution and settled in the North American colonies.

Datshiane: But life wasn't easy for these early British migrants to America. They faced hardship and failure in growing crops, and they suffered diseases such as malaria. But despite all of this, people still kept emigrating.

Katie: Absolutely. In 1606, King James I gave permission for a group of businessmen to sail to Virginia to establish a new colony called Jamestown, to see if it was fit to grow crops and find gold. Here's a quote written in 1607 by George Percy. He is a colonist and the leader of Jamestown. ‘Our men were destroyed with cruel diseases as swellings, fluxes, burning fevers and by wars, and some departed suddenly, but for the most part, they died of mere famine. There were never Englishmen left in a foreign country in such misery as we were in this new discovered Virginia.’

Datshiane: These colonists had little luck with gold, but eventually they began to farm the land successfully. Initially, the workers were indentured servants from Europe and then, after 1619, enslaved Africans who had been forcefully transported and made to perform the gruelling agricultural labour.

Katie: And there were some efforts by the colonists to use Native Americans as well, without success, as well as a small number of free labourers and the settlers themselves.

Datshiane: Tobacco planting in particular led to the success of Jamestown, and it made high profits. These high profits attracted more and more British migrants to seek their fortune in America.

Katie: But it wasn't just tobacco. They grew other crops too, like corn and cotton and, later on, sugar in huge plantations. But they did this through enslaving Africans that they had forcibly transported from their home where they were then made to work relentlessly to produce crops which were then sent back to Britain to sell and make money. And the more money that was made, the more people came, and more settlements sprung up along the east coast of America that eventually became the 13 colonies for Britain.

Datshiane: So, these colonies grew both geographically and numerically, expanding westwards and increasing in population. Britain was able to expand the economies and benefit from farming, trade and manufacturing in the colonies. Now initially, the relationship between the colonists and indigenous people was one of trade and cooperation.

But as the colonies grew, this changed to one marked by exploitation, displacement, violence and the long-term erosion of indigenous culture and society. So, let's have a look now at how the relationship changed between Britain and its colonies in North America.

Katie: You see, the early relationship was mutually beneficial. The colonies relied on British trade and protection. But over time, tensions began to rise because of Britain's attempt to exert more control and impose taxes to pay for their war against France. This led to a growing resentment amongst colonists.

Datshiane: Colonial leaders such as Thomas Jefferson, John Adams and Benjamin Franklin were influenced by Enlightenment ideas and became vocal advocates for colonial rights. The British also fuelled the resentment with some new taxes.

Katie: In particular, the Stamp Act in 1765, which imposed a direct tax on the colonies for stamped paper, legal documents and other items. It was highly unpopular and led to widespread protests in the 13 colonies. They argued that the colonies should not be subject to British taxes and laws without representation in the British Parliament, and the snappy saying, ‘no taxation without representation.’

Datshiane: This essentially meant that they thought it was unfair for the British government to impose taxes on them without allowing them to have any say or representation in the government's decision-making process.

Katie: Whilst at the same time, the UK Parliament's Tea Act of 1773 allowed the British East India Company to sell imported tea from China into American colonies without paying taxes. Let's hear from our time-travelling Bitesize History reporter Kitty and their eyewitness report from 1773 Boston, where things have reached a head.

Kitty: This is no ordinary protest. This is now being referred to as the Boston Tea Party. One by one crates of tea are smashed open, their contents spilling into the harbour, staining the water a murky brown. It's being carried out by members of the Sons of Liberty, a colonial group opposed to British taxation without representation. The colonists are enraged by Britain's taxes on their tea, have had enough. The men have been shouting: ‘We're done paying for Britain’s empire.” The British have been squeezing the colonies for years, starting with the Stamp Act in 1765, but this action is in direct response to the controversial Tea Act passed earlier this year. It's forcing the colonies to buy their tea solely from the British that has finally pushed these colonists over the edge. Now they're making their defiance loud and clear. ‘We will not stand for tyranny any longer,’ one protester shouted as the crates were thrown into the icy water. Only time will tell how this extraordinary event will shape the future of British rule in America. This is Kitty reporting for Bitesize History. Back to the studio.

Datshiane: Thanks, Kitty. Now, here's a couple of sources to help us understand different perspectives on the Boston Tea Party.

Katie: This first one is from a British newspaper report in December 1773. It reads: ‘A group of lawless colonists, disguised as savages, has committed an act of rebellion by destroying valuable tea belonging to the East India Company. This defiance against lawful trade must be met with strong punishment.’

Datshiane: And the second source is a letter from a colonial merchant in January 1774. It says: ‘The destruction of the tea was a necessary act of protest against the tyranny of British taxation. We have borne the burden of unjust laws for too long, and this bold stand will awaken all Americans to the cause of liberty.’

Katie: What these two sources show is that the British and the American colonists had completely opposing perspectives about what exactly was taking place. For the British this was seen as an act of tyranny, whereas the colonists saw this as a legitimate protest against British taxation.

Datshiane: So, Britain did not back down, and in 1774 they introduced the Coercive Acts, also known as the Intolerable Acts. These were harsh measures taken in response to the Boston Tea Party and included the closure of Boston's port and the imposition of British military rule in Massachusetts. But all they managed to do was to anger the colonists and unite them in opposition to Britain.

Katie: The 13 American colonies had enough and formally wrote a Declaration of Independence from Britain, written by Thomas Jefferson on the 4th of July 1776. But unsurprisingly, Britain did not recognise this.

Datshiane: Now you might get an exam question which asks you to briefly explain the impact of Enlightenment ideas on the American colonists’ decision to declare independence from Britain.

Katie: Datshiane, any tips to start us off?

Datshiane: I do indeed, Katie. You might write about the principles which inspired the colonists to question British rule, especially when they felt their rights were being violated by unfair laws and taxation without representation.

Katie: Nice one.

Datshiane: So, King George III maintained his support for the enforcement of British laws and taxes in the colonies, and he ordered military action. This is war. The American Revolutionary War had begun.

Katie: There were five years of bitter fighting, with key battles in Lexington and Concord, and Bunker Hill in the state of Massachusetts, and Saratoga in New York. Together, these battles were a turning point because it convinced France to support the colonies, but it was the British surrender at the Battle of Yorktown in 1781 that was seen as the decisive end of the war.

Datshiane: Now, Yorktown was humiliating for the British because the Americans completely surrounded them and they forced Lord Cornwallis, the British Army leader, to surrender. The Americans were helped by the French here, and so eventually Britain had little choice but to agree to the Treaty of Paris in 1783 and recognise the independence of the United States.

Katie: Britain had paid a heavy price for the war, with 10,000 soldiers and 20,000 sailors losing their lives. And on the American side, there were around 25,000 losses. However, Britain was getting wealthy from industrialisation, and trade with the USA resumed soon. But this included the British slave trade with America. We'll be examining this further in Episode 5.

Datshiane: So, time for a quick test. You know the rules. Three questions, five seconds. Katie, you go.

Katie: OK. What is the name given to the rebellion by a colonial group opposed to British taxation without representation in Boston in 1773?

Datshiane: That's easy. It was the Boston Tea Party.

Katie: Who was the primary author of the Declaration of Independence and when was it written?

Datshiane: Thomas Jefferson in 1776.

Katie: What was the significance of the battles in Lexington and Concord, Bunker Hill, and Saratoga in the 1770s?

Datshiane: Together, these battles were the turning point in the War of Independence, as they convinced France to support the American colonies.

Katie: Great job, everyone. Even though we can't see you, you obviously aced that. So final summary of the key facts from this episode. Off to you, Datshiane.

Datshiane: British colonies were established along the east coast of North America starting in the early 1600s.

Katie: They had their own local governments but were ultimately under British control.

Datshiane: Now, to pay off war debts, Britain imposed new taxes on the colonies without giving them representation in Parliament, which angered them.

Katie: The key events that led to war in 1775 were the Boston Tea Party and the Coercive Acts, which were also called the Intolerable Acts.

Datshiane: As well as ideas from the Enlightenment of natural rights, individual liberty, and government by consent.

Katie: Remember the ‘no taxation without representation" slogan.

Datshiane: And the Declaration of Independence, largely drafted by Thomas Jefferson in 1776, which stated that the colonies were free and sovereign states.

Katie: And a reminder that the movement of people and goods led to colonial expansion with the enforced work of enslaved African people, the displacement of indigenous people, and the settler colonialism of British people.

Datshiane: There's loads more on this and other history topics on the Bitesize website, as well as in other episodes in this series.

Katie: In the next episode, we'll be looking at the British Raj in India and the impact of the War of Independence in 1857. Thanks for listening.

Announcer: BBC Sounds, music, radio, podcasts.

Katie: I'm Katie Charlwood.

Datshiane: And I'm Datshiane Navanayagam.

Katie: And this is BBC Bitesize History.

Datshiane: This is the fourth episode in an eight-part series on the British Empire, in which there are some upsetting descriptions of a dark period in history, so do feel free to pause and reflect if you need to.

Katie: Throughout the series, we are looking at the key moments in the development of the British Empire. In the second episode, we looked at Britain's influence and eventual colonisation of India.

Datshiane: In this episode, we'll pick up after the First War of Indian Independence in 1857. We'll look at the nationalist movement that emerged and the events leading up to independence and the partition of India.

Katie: Along the way, we'll be sharing revision hints and tips on how to remember those key facts.

Datshiane: So get ready to take some notes to help you.

Katie: OK, so let's start with where we left off after Episode 2 in 1857 and the Indian Rebellion.

Datshiane: Now that rebellion was a turning point in British control in India. It was one that sowed the seeds of nationalism and it highlighted the need for self-governance. Let's continue with how events unfolded and the short- and long-term consequences.

Katie: The British response to the uprising led by the Indian Sepoys was violent and bloody. Sepoys, remember, were Indian soldiers originally serving the British, but who then rebelled. The punishment given to the Indian rebels by the British was very brutal. I have here a poem by British poet Martin Topper in 1857 about the massacres. He wrote: ‘And England now avenge their wrongs by vengeance deep and dire. Cut out their cancer with the sword and burn it out with fire. Destroy their traitor regions, hang every pariah hound, and hunt them down to death in all hills and cities around.’

Datshiane: And an Indian civilian describes his experience of seeing the British attack on the Fort of Jhansi in April 1858. He says: ‘The English began entering the city and shooting down every man they saw and setting fire to houses. They sought out males from the age of five to the age of eight and they killed them. Thousands of white soldiers entered the city from all sides and commenced massacring people. The terror in the city at this time was immeasurable. The screaming and crying was endless.’

Katie: Both sources from two different perspectives show the full scale of the violent vengeance that Britain took after the 1857 rebellion that was a very serious and dark event in history.

Datshiane: Now remember, whenever you use a source, you have to ask yourself how reliable it is, and would it be useful for a historian to use as evidence? So this means looking at who wrote it, when it was written, and what was the purpose of writing it.

Katie: Why not hit pause here and write a comparison of these sources yourself. The conflict continued for another year, ending in July 1858 with the rebellion crushed by the British. The rebellion in India is referred to as the First War of Independence, as it was the first major pushback against British rule. It marked a big change and ultimately led to the dissolution, or end, of the East India Company.

Datshiane: However, Britain still wanted India to be part of its empire, and so the British Crown took direct control with the Government of India Act in 1858, which set up a new government department called the India Office, and a viceroy was put in charge of India on behalf of Queen Victoria. Now, this is the beginning of what was called the British Raj.

Katie: The British went further with big social and administrative changes to strengthen and stabilise British control over the country. These reforms were motivated by the need to improve governance, maintain order and of course, prevent resistance among the Indian population.

Datshiane: Indians themselves were given jobs in local government. A new professional middle class of Indian citizen emerged. Now, this is important when we come to the emergence of the Indian Freedom Movement. English was also taught in schools and universities were created in key cities. But whilst all this was going on, the British also intensified racial discrimination, imposing discriminatory laws and policies that favoured British officials and settlers, whilst limiting opportunities for Indians. They also reorganised the Indian army, ensuring greater control and reducing the chances of future rebellions.

Katie: The educated Indian class pushed for change and created the Indian Nationalist Movement, and in 1885 the Indian National Congress or INC. Initially, the Indian National Congress was seeking moderate reforms, but other movements and people emerged later with bigger ideas of independence. OK, the resistance against British rule was growing and by the early 20th century, leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak advocated for Swaraj, a Sanskrit word meaning self-rule.

Datshiane: There were also other religious identity-based groups emerging. The Muslim League was founded in 1906, and it initially sought to protect Muslim interests, but later it demanded a separate Muslim state.

Katie: Mahatma Gandhi began and led mass movements emphasising non-violent resistance. His actions shook the British in India up with his non-violent protests like non-cooperation in 1920, followed by Civil Disobedience in 1933 and Quit India in 1942.

Datshiane: Gandhi is a key figure in Indian history. He said that Britain had no place in India. In 1938, he wrote in his book Indian Home Rule that: ‘India has become impoverished by Britain’s government. They take away our money from year to year. The most important jobs are reserved for themselves. We are kept in a state of slavery. They behave insolently towards us and disregard our feelings.’

Katie: So, an exam question might ask you to consider the reasons why there was an increasing demand for independence. Have a go and write your answer to that question after this podcast. You might include that the social elite and middle classes who used their relative status and power to campaign against and question British rule, were teaching political ideas like democracy, freedom and nationalism.

Datshiane: But Katie, there's also the role of millions of Indian soldiers fighting for Britain in the two world wars, who felt that they were fighting to defend freedom, only to find that India was still not free. They thought it was wrong to stop the Nazis occupying other countries but not fight to stop Britain occupying theirs.

Katie: And so when the Second World War ended in 1945, Britain no longer had the resources to hold on to India when the nation was so determined to rule itself.

Datshiane: In 1946, Britain finally agreed to Indian independence. However, many Muslims did not want to live under a Hindu majority and the Muslim League demanded a second Muslim country to be created whilst the INC wanted one united independent India.

Katie: When the last viceroy of India, Lord Mountbatten, arrived in India with the task of creating an independent Indian state, he felt that the best decision was to partition India. This was because there were growing levels of violence between Hindus and Muslims.

Datshiane: However, Gandhi strongly believed that partition was not the way to resolve this issue, and he opposed it.

Katie: Despite Gandhi's opposition, partition happened on the 15th of August 1947. The Indian Independence Act divided British India into two countries, India with a Hindu majority and Pakistan with a Muslim majority.

Datshiane: Partition saw human suffering happen on a large scale overnight as 15 million people became religious minorities and had to cross borders. It led to violence within communities who had previously lived peacefully together, side by side, and also it led to the displacement of millions.

Katie: And one million people died in the violence that broke out, although some historians estimate that the death toll may be higher.

Datshiane: It saw seven million Muslims, who were living in India, flee to Pakistan and the same number of Hindus and Sikhs flee to India. As Katie says, at least one million people are thought to have died and sadly, the tensions from partition continue to this day, especially over regions like Kashmir.

Katie: Several months after partition, Gandhi was assassinated.

Datshiane: He was assassinated as he was going to afternoon prayers on the 30th of January 1948 by a member of a right-wing Hindu group who had accused him of having betrayed Hindus by being too pro-Muslim and soft on Pakistan. This episode has looked at some difficult and serious issues. You might want to reflect on them or discuss these within your class or friends after the podcast.

Katie: But for now, a quick test on your knowledge. As always, you'll have three questions and five seconds to write your answers down. Here goes. Datshiane, what was the title of the official appointed to represent British authority in India after 1858?

Datshiane: That would be the viceroy.

Katie: Which Indian nationalist organisation was formed in 1885 to seek greater Indian participation in government?

Datshiane: The Indian National Congress.

Katie: Right, what happened after the partition in 1947?

Datshiane: So, India was split into India and the newly created Pakistan.

Katie: Great, well done if you got them all right.

Datshiane: So, here's a quick summary to remind ourselves on the significance of 1857 for Britain and India.

Katie: For India, it was a turning point that sowed the seeds of nationalism, and highlighted the need for self-governance.

Datshiane: For Britain it marked a shift from company to Crown rule, leading to more direct and centralised control over India.

Katie: And the key reasons to remember on why Britain left India include the growing nationalist movements, which made British rule increasingly difficult.

Datshiane: Indian soldiers who had served Britain during the Second World War, who wanted their own freedom.

Katie: And Britain being economically weakened and unable to afford to maintain its empire.

Datshiane: We'll go into that more in a later episode.

Katie: Independence led to two new states, India and Pakistan, but the impact of partition led to more loss of many lives and mass migration.

Datshiane: And once again you have the interlink between colonialism, politics and migration. There's loads more on this and other history topics on the Bitesize website, as well as in other episodes in this series.

Katie: In the next episode, we'll be looking at another dark period in history, the slave trade and slavery in the Caribbean colonies.

Datshiane: That episode will include descriptions of violence, exploitation and the inhuman conditions endured by enslaved people. These subjects can be distressing, and they may be difficult to hear.

Katie: Thank you for listening.

Announcer: BBC Sounds, music, radio, podcasts.

Datshiane: I'm Datshiane Navanayagam.

Katie: And I'm Katie Charlwood, and this is BBC Bitesize GCSE History.

Datshiane: This is the fifth episode in an eight-part series on the British Empire.

Katie: Throughout the series, we are looking at the key moments in the development of the British Empire.

Datshiane: In this episode, we're going to look at the transatlantic slave trade, the human impact and how Britain became very wealthy from slavery.

Katie: This episode will include descriptions of violence, exploitations and the inhumane conditions endured by enslaved people. We recognise that these subjects can be distressing and may be difficult to hear. Please, take care of your emotional wellbeing and feel free to pause or even step away if you need to, or speak with someone you trust.

Datshiane: So Katie, give us the who, what and where background to Britain's involvement in the slave trade.

Katie: Okay, this began from the 1560s, when British sailors and merchants seeked to profit from lucrative trade around the world. Merchants started attacking and stealing from other ships. But from the 1600s, Britain began to set up colonies, settling the land and displacing indigenous populations, developing huge farms called plantations, where high profit crops like sugar, cotton and tobacco were grown.

Datshiane: These crops were labour intensive, which means they needed large numbers of people to do the hard work of farming them to make profits. Initially, indentured servants were used.

Katie: See, indentured servants were people who worked for someone else until they had paid back a debt.

Datshiane: But using indentured servants would still have eaten into their profits, and so they turned to the slave trade, which was expanding, and slavery was seen as a more profitable solution.

Katie: This was the transatlantic slave trade. It was the forced enslavement and movement of people from Africa to the Americas.

Datshiane: In fact, the transatlantic slave trade became the largest forced migration in history.

Katie: And in 1619, the first enslaved Africans were forcibly seized and brought to the British colony of Virginia in North America. Enslaved Africans were bought outright by plantation owners.

Datshiane: They had no legal rights, and they had to work their whole lives without payment. Many enslaved people died of exhaustion, injury or disease. And any children born became the slave owner’s property too. This is known as chattel slavery.

Katie: And it wasn't just North America where new colonies were set up, merchants started attacking and stealing from other ships. But from the 1600s, Britain began to setup colonies in North America and the Caribbean, settling the land and displacing indigenous populations. In 1661, the Barbados Slave Code was set into law, which was established in the British colony. This defined the status of enslaved people, it granted the owners absolute power, while denying basic rights to enslaved people themselves.

Datshiane: And the slave trade was highly profitable, with traders making millions of pounds. Three British port cities grew wealthy from the slave trade: Bristol, Liverpool and Glasgow.

Katie: Up until 1800, around twelve to fifteen million Africans were forcibly taken across the Atlantic Ocean to the Americas and the Caribbean, although some historians suggest that the figure could've been even higher.

Datshiane: Enslaved people endured short and terrible lives of extreme misery and brutal punishment for resisting or disobeying their enslavers.

Katie: And their families were often separated and had no legal rights.

Datshiane: The dehumanising treatment, the extreme working conditions and the long hours and barbaric punishments meant that the life expectancy of enslaved Africans was only twenty-six years.

Katie: Africans were captured mainly on the West African coast, particularly from areas such as modern day Ghana and Nigeria. And the European traders exchanged goods such as guns, alcohol and textiles for enslaved people. The words of Olaudah Equiano, who was kidnapped and sold into slavery, capture the unimaginable despair. He wrote that, ‘The shrieks of the women, and the groans of the dying, renders the whole a scene of horror, almost inconceivable.’

Datshiane: Once captured in West Africa, enslaved Africans were packed tightly into ships, facing brutal conditions, disease and abuse. It's estimated that around fifteen to twenty per cent, around over two million of them, did not survive the voyage, which is known as the Middle Passage.

Katie: The three-part trading journey was known as the slave triangle. Enslaved Africans were taken to the Americas and the Caribbean. Then raw materials like sugar, cotton and tobacco were taken back to Britain and Europe. And then, manufactured goods and luxuries were taken to the west coast of Africa to exchange for enslaved people to be taken to the Americas. Of course, those who benefitted were vastly outnumbered by enslaved people, who endured appalling conditions. Their families were often separated and enslaved people had no legal rights.

Datshiane: There's lots of serious and difficult history to take on here, so feel free to pause if you need to digest or discuss this with friends or teachers.

Katie: We heard some words of Olaudah Equiano, who was enslaved, and his autobiography, 'The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano', written in 1789, helped readers to humanise enslaved Africans and challenge racist ideas about African people, as it was one of the first personal accounts of slavery written by someone who had experienced it directly.

Datshiane: Here's an example quote from Olaudah Equiano and his book, which might be useful to use as a primary source in an exam question. ‘I was soon put down under the decks, and there I received such a salutation in my nostrils as I had never experienced in my life… I became so sick and low that I was not able to eat… I now wished for the last friend, Death, to relieve me.’

Katie: Olaudah Equiano's words might be useful to consider, as they reflect the experiences of enslaved Africans during the Middle Passage. Have a think about why his account's considered valuable primary source for understanding the slave trade.

Datshiane: As always, use your knowledge of these events, and think about the content and reliability of the source to make a judgement as to how useful it is. Or listen back to the exam skill series for some tips.

Katie: There had always been resistance to the slave trade in Africa, during the Middle Passage and on the plantations.

Datshiane: Exactly, there are numerous recorded revolts on slave ships, where captives tried to overthrow the crew, though these were mostly unsuccessful.

Katie: And on the plantations, enslaved people resisted by working slowly, sabotaging equipment, maintaining cultural practices, or pretending to be sick, or run away.

Datshiane: And there were many organised revolts and uprisings in the Caribbean, including the Maroons in Jamaica, who escaped their plantations in 1655. They set up independent communities in remote areas resisting recapture. You can find more details on this and other revolts on the Bitesize website.

Katie: In Britain, many members of parliament were involved in and profited from the slave trade. Many of them were opposed to the abolition of slavery, but from the 1770s in Britain, a growing abolitionist movement emerged.

Datshiane: It included prominent members of parliament, including William Wilberforce and Thomas Clarkson. They travelled the country to raise awareness of the horrific experiences and spread the abolitionist message.

Katie: In 1807, the British Parliament passed the Abolition of the Slave Trade Act, which banned the transatlantic slave trade, but did not end slavery itself. That didn't happen until 1833, when the Slavery Abolition Act was passed. This finally led to the emancipation of enslaved people in the British Empire.

Datshiane: Despite the abolition of slavery, and the horrors of the trade, it was the slave owners who demanded compensation from the British government, using taxpayers’ money for the loss of what they felt was their labour force.

Katie: The slave owners got their way in that the Abolition Act of 1833 did recognise enslaved people were property of the slave owners and they would be compensated with cash payments under what was called the apprenticeship system.

Datshiane: Katie, explain the apprenticeship system.

Katie: Okay, so, the apprenticeship system is where former enslaved people were required to work for their former masters for a set number of years, usually between four and six years, in return for a small wage. But they continued to suffer poor conditions and exploitation.

Datshiane: This continued exploitation and injustices of black people in Jamaica led to the Morant Bay Rebellion of 1865, which was headed by a preacher, Paul Bogle. It was brutally suppressed by the British.

Katie: See, Paul Bogle preached a political vision to his congregation demanding better and more equal treatment. A day before the rebellion in 1865, he wrote a petition which was published in the London Gazette. Bogle’s letter of 1865 spoke of ‘the mean advantages that have been taken of us.’ They asked for the rights of law they believed they were due, promising that otherwise ‘we will be compelled to put our shoulders to the wheels, as we have been imposed upon … for 27 years,’ since 1838, when apprenticeship came to an end.

Datshiane: You can find out more about Paul Bogle and the Morant Bay Rebellion on the BBC Bitesize website. Now, the abolition of slavery was a significant moment in history. Have a think about what some of the immediate effects were and write them down in your revision notes.

Katie: So, these would include the freedom of the enslaved people themselves, but there were also economic ones as previously enslaved individuals struggled to find stable work, and it also forced landowners to find new labour systems. And social consequences, as even after slavery was abolished, formerly enslaved people and their descendants faced systemic racism and social exclusion.

Datshiane: Overall, slavery was central to the growth of the British Empire. The profits from the slave trade and plantation economies helped Britain become a global superpower, but the human cost of this wealth was humungous, as millions of Africans were forcibly enslaved and exploited.

Katie: As a result of the transatlantic slave trade, today millions of people of African descent live across the world. This is a part of what is known as the African diaspora.

Datshiane: There is loads more on this and other History topics on the Bitesize website, as well as in other episodes in this series. In the next episode, we'll be looking at colonisation in Africa. Thanks for listening.

Announcer: BBC Sounds, music, radio, podcasts.

Katie: I'm Katie Charlwood, a history podcaster.

Datshiane: And I'm Datshiane Navanayagam, and this is BBC Bitesize GCSE History.

Katie: This is the sixth episode in an eight-part series on the British Empire.

Datshiane: In this episode, we're going to look at British colonisation in Africa.

Katie: This episode will include some serious topics. We recognise that these subjects can be distressing and may be difficult to hear. Please take care of your emotional wellbeing and feel free to pause or step away if needed, or speak to someone you trust.

Datshiane: Let's start with the reasons why Europeans began to increase their control and interest in Africa. Katie, where, what and why?

Katie: Okay, so, up until the 1800s, European countries' interest in West Africa was mostly centred on the capture and enslavement of people whom they took to America to work on plantations. We looked at this in a previous episode if you need a reminder. By the 1860s, industrialisation in Europe was progressing fast, as well as the movement of goods back to Europe that were the driver of colonisation in Africa.

Datshiane: In 1876, King Leopold of Belgium set up the International African Association to research inland Africa.

Katie: And they discovered that the continent had plentiful natural resources, including gold, diamonds, rubber, copper and ivory, which were highly valuable to European industries.

Datshiane: Remember, the Industrial Revolution in Europe was happening from the 1860s, and this increased the demand for these resources, as well as new markets to sell European goods.

Katie: And Britain was by far the world's leading power for industry and trade, but the other European countries and America were becoming serious rivals. Explorers brought back African gold, diamonds and ivory as well as cash crops such as rubber, coffee and timber.

Datshiane: Seeing these natural resources meant that the European countries saw Africa as an opportunity to get even richer, and so they competed to colonise as much of Africa as possible. It also meant that they wanted to secure strategic territories to protect their resources and trade routes along the way.

Katie: And they felt that this was justified by ideas like Social Darwinism, which argued that European civilisations were more advanced and as such, had the right to dominate others.

Datshiane: The colonisers used the idea of a "civilising mission". This is where Europeans felt it was their duty to bring Western civilisation and Christianity to Africa, where it wasn't widespread.

Katie: Even though the continent already had systems of government, religions and a rich cultural heritage of its own.

Datshiane: This is the period when the European countries tried to grab as much of Africa as they could, and it's known as 'The Scramble for Africa'. It was formalised at the Berlin Conference of 1884 to 1885, where European powers divided Africa amongst themselves without consulting any African leaders. Let's head back in time to our time-travelling reporter Kitty who is there, and then with their report.

Kitty: Delegates from major European powers – Britain, France, Portugal, Belgium and Germany – have gathered under one roof to carve up Africa, and yet there is not a single representative of an African kingdom. With the recent opening of the Suez Canal, Britain is eager to expand its influence, eyeing the rich resources of the continent. I caught German Chancellor Bismarck's opening speech earlier when he said, ‘My fellow Europeans, Turks and Americans, welcome to Berlin. For the next three months we will be discussing our claims in Africa, particularly Congo, which has been claimed by France, Portugal and Belgium. Please remember Doctor Livingstone's three Cs. We go to Africa seeking to spread Commerce, Christianity and Civilisation. We must ensure that the Arab slave trade of Africans comes to an end. We also must ensure that trade must be free. The riches of Africa must benefit all Europeans equally.’ The mood is one of competition, but the delegates are desperate to avoid outright war over territory. The agreed-upon rule: a nation must have soldiers on the ground to stake a claim. This is leading to an intense free-for-all; a scramble for Africa, where the map is being redrawn almost overnight. I can see representatives huddled together, exchanging heated words while envisioning the vast empires they will build. This conference feels like a game of chess, but with real lives at stake. This is Kitty reporting for Bitesize History. Back to the studio.

Datshiane: Thanks, Kitty. Now, you might want to pause and take some notes here of the areas that Britain took in Africa. They took sixteen huge areas of land, or colonies, in the scramble for Africa. In West Africa, Britain colonised what is today Nigeria, which was rich in palm oil and cocoa. British rule imposed indirect governance, using local rulers to enforce British laws. This was deliberate because it made British rule and control much easier.

Katie: Also in West Africa, Ghana, then called the Gold Coast, also became a British colony after a series of military conflicts and treaties. In East Africa in Kenya, British settlers took over vast amounts of fertile land for coffee and tea plantations, displacing local populations, as well as taking control of Uganda and Tanzania.

Datshiane: In North Africa, Britain established control over Egypt, mainly to secure the Suez Canal, which was vital for trade and military movement.

Katie: And Britain also gained control over Sudan in the 1890s, after defeating the Mahdist forces.

Datshiane: In Central Africa, Malawi and Zambia, which was then called Northern Rhodesia, also became British colonies.

Katie: And in Southern Africa they took control of Southern Rhodesia, now called Zimbabwe. And alongside the Dutch, Britain colonised South Africa. A useful way of remembering the outcome and impact of the Berlin Conference are through the letters P-E-S, PES. P is the "political impact" because artificial borders were created, often leading to future conflicts. E is for "economic impact" because the exploitation of African resources for European benefit, with little regard for local economies. And S is for "social impact" that saw the introduction of European education, religion and culture, often at the expense of African traditions of indigenous cultures and languages.

Datshiane: In fact, by 1900, Britain had claimed 32% of African land. And as a result, nationalist resistance against British colonisation soon emerged.

Katie: This included armed resistance such as in Kenya where resistance to colonisation was met with harsh repression. This led to movements like the Mau Mau Uprising in the 1950s.

Datshiane: And non-violent mass mobilisations and strikes such as those in Ghana. Kwame Nkrumah had been a prominent activist against colonial rule in the Gold Coast. He organised strikes, boycotts and peaceful demonstrations, which got widespread public support, and he encouraged Ghanaians to refuse to pay taxes and comply with colonial laws.

Katie: This campaign had huge public support and demonstrated the determination of the Ghanaian people for self-rule, and they gained independence in 1957. And the mid-20th century saw a rise in global anti-colonial pressure from organisations such as the United Nations.

Datshiane: In the other episodes, we have looked at the colonisation in North America and India, and in this episode we've looked at Africa. You might want to consider how these were similar or different. Grab your pen, pencil or digital method of note taking as Katie gives us a three-letter hint to help us remember this one.

Katie: So, I have E-C-R, which you could think of as European Colonisers Repelled. E is for ‘economic exploitation.’ All regions were exploited for their natural resources and labour. C is ‘cultural imposition.’ European powers imposed their culture, language and religion on the colonised people. ‘R is resistance and rebellion.’ Colonised peoples in all regions resisted European control, leading to various uprisings and independence movements.

Datshiane: Okay Katie, but let's just go into ECR a bit more for the three areas, to see the similarities.

Katie: So, when we talk about exploitation of their natural resources, we see, for example, in America it was land used for growing sugar, tobacco and cotton and using enslaved people. In India it was taking the spices, the tea, the iron and cotton and taxing the people and paying them low wages. And in Africa it was gold, rubber and diamonds, and again paying very little for the people doing the work.

Datshiane: And for C, culturally, in each region we saw the imposing of European languages, as well as Christianity, especially in Africa, at the expense of local culture and practices.

Katie: In terms of R, for resistance and rebellion, in India there had been a violent rebellion in 1857, which led to many changes and eventual independence. In Africa, different countries resisted in differing ways. We mentioned armed resistance in Kenya, and non-violent protests in Ghana, then called the Gold Coast.

Datshiane: The division of Africa with arbitrary borders has led to many conflicts along ethnic lines. Even though the countries in Africa are now independent, many remain relatively poorer because of the precious raw materials which were stripped by colonising European countries.

Katie: And the continuation of the trade agreements and loans which colonisation did not always end, favouring European traders rather than African producers. Okay, time for a quick test. Three questions, five seconds. Write your answers down. Okay? Here goes.

Datshiane: What were the primary natural resources that European powers sought in Africa during the colonisation period?

Katie: Those would be gold, diamonds, rubber and ivory.

Datshiane: Very good. What was the significance of the Berlin Conference?

Katie: It led to the partitioning of the continent among the European powers, without regard for indigenous cultures and boundaries.

Datshiane: Last one. What is the name given to this period of African colonisation by European nations?

Katie: The Scramble for Africa.

Datshiane: Well done if you got all three right. There's no prizes but there's lots of praise from us. In the next episode, we'll be looking at the British Empire and the experience and impact of the world wars. Thanks for listening.

Announcer: BBC Sounds, music, radio, podcasts.

Katie: I'm Katie Charlwood.

Datshiane: And I'm Datshiane Navanayagam.

Katie: And this is BBC Bitesize History. This is the seventh episode in an eight-part series on the British Empire.

Datshiane: In this episode, we're going to look at the role of the British Empire in the First and the Second World Wars, and the cost to Britain's status in the world.

Katie: We will look at the vital role and the impact of colonial soldiers fighting for Britain in the theatres of war around the world, and at their motivations and experiences.

Datshiane: And we'll examine the impact of the world wars on nationalism and the independence movements in the colonies of the British Empire.

Katie: And as always, we'll be sharing revision hints and tips on how to remember those key facts. And we'll be hearing from our Bitesize time-travelling reporter who we'll be sending back in time to report on another key moment in history.

Datshiane: I think we should start by taking a look at the financial and economic impact of the world wars on Britain. Katie?

Katie: Okay, so a quick recap. By 1900, Britain had a large empire which covered a quarter of the world's population, and this included land in Africa, islands in the Caribbean, large parts of East Asia, Australia and New Zealand, as well as Ireland. It also ruled over all of India, which included the present-day countries known as Pakistan and Bangladesh. The empire helped Britain to become a major industrial pillar, and before World War I it was one of the wealthiest countries in the world.

Datshiane: But remember, by the time World War I had ended in 1918, the cost of the war for Britain was huge. Britain was now in debt because it had borrowed money, mainly from the USA.

Katie: Added to that was that during the war many countries had been cut off from the supply of British goods. As a result, they were forced to build their own industries. They were no longer reliant on Britain for trade and were now direct competitors with Britain instead. The First World War changed Britain's status in the world. It was no longer the world's economic superpower.

Datshiane: And by the end of the Second World War, Britain was in an even worse economic state. It now owed even more money to the USA.

Katie: Britain's economy was also beginning to change, as trade with Europe and the USA became more important than its trade with countries of the empire.

Datshiane: So, these two world wars made Britain poorer, and trading partners were also changing. Write these summaries down if it helps your revision notes.

Katie: Let's now look at how colonial soldiers from the British Empire were directly involved in both world wars, the crucial role they played and how this fed into the ideas of self-governance. World War I first, Datshiane. Give us some numbers on soldiers from the British colonies.

Datshiane: Okay, so in World War I there were approximately four million colonial troops involved. These included soldiers from colonies directly ruled by Britain. India alone contributed over 1.3 million. And there was a similar number combined from the self-governing nations of Australia, New Zealand and Canada.

Katie: Geographically, World War I was mainly fought in Europe, and some battles in the Middle East and at sea as Britain defended its trade routes and global supply lines. The impact of World War I was a significant loss of life, serious economic strain and political changes around the world.

Datshiane: You could say that many of those who came to fight from the colonies are the forgotten heroes of World War I, because their contribution is only being recognised recently.

Katie: One of them was Khudadad Khan, who arrived in Europe in 1914 from India to fight for Britain. He was a machine gunner and was injured in battle in October 1914 but managed to hold off a German advance long enough for Indian and British reinforcements to arrive. He was presented with the Victoria Cross, the highest award that you can receive for bravery, and he was the first Indian soldier to receive the award. Now, let us have a look at what's happening in the colonies of the British Empire at the beginning of the 20th century, and how the world wars increased the call for self-determination.

Datshiane: Yeah, so even before the beginning of the First World War in 1914 there was already increased political awareness in the colonies and nationalist movements had begun to emerge.

Katie: Especially in India, where there were growing calls for independence at this time.

Datshiane: Exactly. These continued as colonies began to increasingly question their subjugation after contributing significantly to the war effort. At the end of World War I, when the promise of self-governance and self-determination in return for war effort was often not fulfilled, it led to disillusionment, and it highlighted the contradictions of colonial rule.

Katie: The colonies were not happy, and people started to join independence movements.

Datshiane: That's right, Katie. The people in the colonies of the British Empire, they started to demand greater autonomy and freedom.

Katie: In addition, in 1919, a year after the war ended, the British carried out the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre, when British troops fired on a large crowd of unarmed Indians, including women and children, in Amritsar. Many hundreds of people died. That atrocity in India saw more protests in the inter-war period.

Datshiane: In fact, the massacre profoundly affected the political philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi. It strengthened his idea of self-determination for India, and that non-violent resistance was not only morally superior but also the most effective means to challenge colonial rule.

Katie: He used the outrage over the massacre to unite Indians across regional and religious divides to support the Non-Cooperation Movement. This urged Indians to withdraw from British institutions and boycott colonial goods as a form of peaceful resistance.

Datshiane: Okay, let's move on to World War II, which was…

Katie: …1939 to 1945.

Datshiane: This was where Britain was more reliant than ever on people, land and resources from the empire to keep on fighting.

Katie: This war was fought across multiple continents; these so-called "theatres of war" being in Europe, North Africa, the Middle East, the Pacific and Southeast Asia.

Datshiane: Britain had a big role to play in all these areas around the world. These different locations were crucial for Britain in maintaining supply lines, strategic positions and supporting Allied operations.

Katie: In World War II, the British Empire faced major threats in Asia, particularly from Japan. Britain's colonies, such as India, were vital in fighting the Second World War in the Pacific.

Datshiane: Around five million colonial soldiers participated in World War II. You had significant contributions from India, with over 2.5 million soldiers. You had over 300,000 soldiers from East Africa and around one and a half million soldiers from the self-governing nations of the empire, these being Canada, Australia and New Zealand.

Katie: It is important to recognise the critical role of soldiers from all round the world who came to fight for Britain and against fascism in World War II. Without them, Britain and the Allies would have been unable to succeed.

Datshiane: So, to recap. Millions of soldiers from across the British Empire fought in both world wars, contributing significantly to the British war effort. They came from all the colonies.

Katie: Many colonial soldiers were conscripted into the British Army. But you might want to consider why some of the colonial soldiers would volunteer to fight. Any ideas, Datshiane?

Datshiane: Well, colonial soldiers were motivated by three key factors. First, their loyalty to the British Crown. Second, there were economic incentives. And third, there was the promise of political concessions after the war. Many thought that if they showed Britain their commitment and bravery they'd be rewarded with independence. And Britain had previously made these promises.

Katie: Their experiences in the armed forces varied widely. While some found opportunities for advancement within the military, many faced discrimination, hard conditions and high casualty rates.

Datshiane: That's exactly right.

Katie: Now it's time to cross over in time and space to hear from Jordan, our time-travelling reporter, with his latest report from 1942 war-torn Burma, a country in Southeast Asia now called Myanmar, which was occupied by Japan during the Second World War.

Jordan: As the sound of war echoes across Burma, thousands of men from across the British Empire are answering the call. This is Jordan, reporting from a humid jungle camp where colonial soldiers share stories beneath the scorching sun. They come from Nigeria, the Gold Coast, Sierra Leone and The Gambia, and are showing extraordinary courage and determination in one of the most challenging theatres of this war. These are the young men of the 81st and 82nd West Africa Divisions, who are part of a vital effort to drive Japanese troops out of Burma with their skill in jungle warfare, fighting alongside the British. One solider from the Gold Coast I spoke to told me that the jungle was unlike anything he'd ever seen, but he and his troops are determined to defeat the Japanese and help win this war. ‘We fight not just for our homeland,’ he told me, ‘but for a place in the world. Our families back home depend on us.’ For many of them, the war isn't just about defeating the enemy abroad; it's the hope that by helping Britain in the war effort, improving loyalty and commitment will lead to their own independence from the empire. And yet they fear their contributions will go unrecognised. Many who were promised respect face prejudice. Another soldier told me, ‘In the army, the white people use violence and hurl racist insults. We don't like the way they treat us, especially when we've come here to Burma.’ As I look around at these men, wearing uniforms that don't quite fit, I can see the weight of their commitment. This is Jordan reporting for Bitesize History. Back to the studio.

Katie: Thanks, Jordan. So, to recap. Both world wars saw a rise in the cause of nationalist movements in many countries of the British Empire. More were determining the right to self-rule. And although the two wars weren't a direct cause of independence for these nations, it was a catalyst. And this is an idea we'll explore further in the final episode.

Datshiane: Okay, it's that usual time for a quick test. It's the same rules: three questions, five seconds to write those answers down, or more seconds if you use any of your fingers to press pause. Here we go. Katie, which British colony contributed over a million soldiers to the Allied Forces during the First World War?

Katie: That would be India.

Datshiane: What is meant by "theatres of war"?

Katie: These were the multiple continents on which the Second World War was fought – Europe, North Africa, the Middle East, the Pacific and Southeast Asia.

Datshiane: Okay, give me one of the long-term consequences of the contribution of colonial soldiers during the world wars?

Katie: It increased pressure for independence movements in British colonies.

Datshiane: Did you get all three right?

Katie: I did!

Datshiane: Yeah, but you've got the answers in front of you. But well done anyway.

Katie: Hey…! In the final episode, we'll be looking at how the British Empire finally ended. There's loads more on this and other history topics on the Bitesize website, as well in other episodes in this series.

Datshiane: Thank you for listening.

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Katie: I'm Katie Charlwood.

Datshiane: And I'm Datshiane Navanayagam.

Katie: And this is BBC Bitesize History.

Datshiane: In this final episode, we'll bring together our knowledge and understanding of the British Empire. So, have a listen back to previous episodes in this series if it helps.

Katie: Throughout, we've seen many interlinking factors which influenced decolonisation. There were three main ones. Firstly, the increase in nationalism which created more resistance and opposition to colonial authority.

Datshiane: The second, was the economic change and the decline in Britain's wealth which meant that Britain could no longer afford the Empire.

Katie: And thirdly were the ideas like democracy and freedom which undermined the very concept of the Empire. In the previous episode, we saw that by the time the Second World War broke out Britain was weak both economically and militarily. This made it harder to maintain its empire. Yet, many countries within the British Empire had contributed troops and resources to help Britain end both wars. Some did it out of loyalty. But, also with the hope of independence and self-determination. And, when things didn't change, it increased support for nationalism and independence movements in their countries.

Datshiane: There were also other political events which made the ideology of an empire seem almost old-fashioned. For example, the Atlantic Charter of 1941…

Katie: …during the Second World War.

Datshiane: Yes, this was signed between Britain and the USA. And it emphasised self-determination. Although it wasn't specifically aimed at British colonies, it gave an additional reason for many of the other colonies to push for independence. In fact, one of the Charter's eight points declared that the Allies would respect the right of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they will live. Which, kind of directly references self-determination.

Katie: And many people also challenged the outdated and clearly wrong assumptions that people in Africa and Asia were somehow racially inferior.

Datshiane: So, after the end of World War II in 1945, you get nationalist movements in India, Africa and the Caribbean. They gain momentum leading to a wave of decolonisation up until the 1970s.

Katie: So, the world was changing politically, ideologically and as well for Britain economically. Britain itself after World War II had lost so much of its wealth because of the cost of war. These pressures meant that Britain could no longer maintain its empire. Okay, so let's analyse two different sources which were written after the War about the issue of decolonisation and self-determination. Even if your exam board doesn't ask you questions where you have to compare sources, it's a useful way to understand history through different viewpoints. Source A is a British Government Foreign Office memo from 1945 and says: ‘The Second World War has brought about great change. The people of India who fought with us against the Axis powers now demand self-governance. We must prepare for the possibility of granting independence.’

Datshiane: Source B is a speech from Kwame Nkrumah, the Ghanaian nationalist leader, in 1946. He says: ‘Our victory in this war has shown that we are capable of standing on our own. We no longer need Britain to rule us, and we demand immediate independence.’

Katie: These two sources are useful because they show just how much the war accelerated decolonisation. The British Government are admitting in 1945 that decolonisation is on the horizon. And Nkrumah's highlighting the Ghanaian support for the War shows that they deserve independence.

Datshiane: We can use those sources and our own knowledge to write an essay about the extent to which World War II accelerated decolonisation. Katie, how might you start this off?

Katie: Well, I'd do something like - The Second World War had a significant impact on the British Empire, particularly by accelerating the process of decolonisation. Sources A and B provide evidence that World War II acted as a catalyst for independence movements in India and Africa as colonial subjects, after fighting alongside Britain, demanded greater autonomy.

Datshiane: I think that's excellent. Good start. See if you can continue from there after the podcast. Right. So, between 1945 and the 1960s many colonies finally gained independence from British rule. The first of these was India in 1947, which was split into two countries - India and Pakistan - by partition.

Katie: Mahatma Gandhi was the central figure in India's independence. He united diverse groups across India, mobilising millions in peaceful campaign against British colonial rule. His emphasis on non-violence, self-reliance and moral courage left a lasting impact on India as well as freedom movements worldwide.

Datshiane: Let's step back a little though. We've seen that many former British colonies gained their independence after World War II. And that one reason for this was the declining power that Britain exerted on the world stage. Now, one key event that demonstrated this was the Suez Crisis which occurred in 1956 in Egypt.

Katie: Egypt had been a colony of Britain but gained its own independence in 1922; although there were still British troops stationed there. In 1956, a flashpoint occurred at the then British-owned Suez Canal.

Datshiane: Now, the Suez Canal is one of the most important waterways in the world. Have a look at a map to see where it is. You can see that it is a shortcut because it allows ships to travel between Europe and Asia without the need to sail seven thousand kilometres all the way around the southern tip of Africa. So, control of the Canal was hugely important. Every time a ship used the canal, the Suez Canal Company, which was co-owned by Britain, got paid a tax.

Katie: Well, it was owned by Britain and France but in July 1956 the Egyptian President Nasser nationalised the canal, taking it under Egyptian Government control. A planned military invasion by Britain, France and Israel was strongly opposed by America and the outcome was that the Suez Canal remained in the possession of Egypt. This was a clear sign though that Britain's global influence was in decline. Check out the Bitesize website for more details on this.

Datshiane: And another example of Britain's declining power after World War II was evident on the Gold Coast of West Africa. This saw increased political activity and demand for independence. In 1957, it became the first sub-Saharan African colony to gain independence from Britain. And it was renamed Ghana.

Katie: And, in Kenya between 1952 and 1960, violent uprisings against British colonial rule by the Kenya Land and Freedom Army, known as the Mau Mau, eventually led to significant political changes including more African representation in government, as well as allowing more Africans to own and farm land. Kenya gained its independence in 1963.

Datshiane: In fact, in 1960, the British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan announced that there was a 'wind of change blowing through Africa’ that was bringing independence from the Empire. This was an acceptance from the British Government that decolonisation had to come to Africa.

Katie: And in the Caribbean, Jamaica became independent in 1962. But there were other reasons and pressures for Britain to give up its empire.

Datshiane: At the end of World War II there were two new superpowers, the USA and USSR, emerging. And they had different ideologies.

Katie: And to them, colonialism did not sit well with their ideals.

Datshiane: Oh, and we should also mention that the United Nations was formed in 1945. And this was another factor contributing to the final days of Britain's empire.

Katie: But why?

Datshiane: Well, at its heart is the UN Charter, the aim of which was to develop friendly relations amongst nations based on respect with the principle of equal rights and self-determinations of peoples. And it also provided legal support for anti-colonial movements worldwide.

Katie: So, political and ideological changes across the world had also led to pressures to end the British Empire. So, after decolonisation, many of the now former British colonies joined the Commonwealth of Nations. This was a voluntary association of independent countries many of which were once part of the British Empire. In the Commonwealth these nations are considered equal. They cooperate with each other promoting culture, trade and supporting human rights. Today there are 56 countries in the Commonwealth; and the Head of the Commonwealth is the British monarch.

Datshiane: Decolonisation, coupled with British citizenship given to people living in former Empire nations, was fundamental to increase post war migration to Britain. As countries gained their independence, many people from those former colonies came to Britain. And they've become an intricate part of British society and culture.

Katie: Datshiane, isn't your family story linked to the British Empire?

Datshiane: Yes it is. So, both sets of my grandparents were born in Sri Lanka, which was a British colony. But they emigrated under the British to Malaysia, which was known as Malaya at the time and was another British colony. And then my dad came from Malaysia to Britain in the 1950s.

Katie: And do you know when Sri Lanka gained independence?

Datshiane: Yes, so it gained independence in 1948 and, before you ask Katie, Malaysia gained independence in 1957.

Katie: That is a great story Datshiane. And maybe our listeners have one too.

Datshiane: So, how about some more quick test questions? You know the rules - three questions, five seconds.

Katie: What was the first African country to gain independence from Britain and what year?

Datshiane: So, that was Egypt, and it was 1922.

Katie: What was the Suez Crisis?

Datshiane: The Suez Crisis was in 1956, and it was when Egypt took control of the Suez Canal from Britain.

Katie: What was the movement in Kenya fighting for independence?

Datshiane: So, they were the Mau Mau and there were violent uprisings between 1952 and 1960 against the British. Kenya gained independence in 1963.

Katie: Great. Well done everyone. Even though we can't see you, we know you got them right.

Datshiane: Thank you for listening along with us and good luck with your exam.

Katie: I've been Katie Charlwood.

Datshiane: And I've been Datshiane Navanayagam.

Both: Bye